Document Type : Original Article
Authors
- . Saiedeh Bahrampouri
- . Hamid Reza Khankeh
- . Seyed Ali Hosseini
- . Mohammadreza Mehmandar 1
- . Abbas Ebadi 2
1 Police University, NAJA Traffic Police, Tehran, Iran
2 Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Life Style, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran, Nursing Faculty, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Today, as age increases, the demand for independent living has increased. Since driving is one
of the safest and preferred ways for the elderly to travel, paying close attention to the accurate
assessment of the elderly’s driving ability can prevent traffic accidents in this age group. The purpose
of this study was to identify and introduce practical tools for drive assessment fitness of the elderly.
This systematic review was conducted according to Cochrane methodology and reported findings
according to PRISMA. The following databases were searched from PubMed, ISI web of knowledge,
Scopus, ProQuest, Medlib, SID, Magiran, Iran doc, and Iran Medex based on the population
intervention comparison outcome method. The total records involving 12 main tools were assessed
from 26 selected records in the final evaluation. The research findings indicated the selection of
seven tools in the psycho‑cognitive function domain such as TMT‑B, Clock Drawing Test, MAZE,
Montreal Cognitive Assessment, GDS‑15, MMSE, and ACE‑R, three tools in the sensory function
domain such as Snellen, Confrontation Visual field, and Whispered Voice Test, and also two tools
in motor function domain such as Rapid pace walk, and Manual test of the range of motion. The
findings led to selecting practical, accurate, and fast tools for widespread use for the assessment of
driving competencies of the elderly. Therefore, it is recommended that the selected tools be used in
practical batteries to assess the driving skills of the elderly.
Keywords
1. WHO. Ageing and Health: World Health Organization; 2018.
Available from: http://www.who.int/news‑room/fact‑sheets/
detail/ageing‑and‑health. [Last accessedon 2021 Apr 12].
2. Beard JR, Officer AM, Cassels AK. The World Report on Ageing
and Health. USA: Oxford University Press; 2016.
3. WHO. Facts on Ageing and Health.: World Health Organization;
2017. Available from: http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/
ageing/en/.[Last accessed on 2021 Apr 12]
4. WHO. Other Dimensions of the NCD Crisis: From Mental
Health, Ageing, Dementia and Malnutrition to Deaths on the
Roads, Violence and Disability. Ten Years in Public Health
2007‑2017; 2017.Available from: https://www.who.int/
publications/10‑year‑review/ncd‑other‑dimensions/en/[Last
accessed on 2021 Apr 12]
5. Marcum CS. Age differences in daily social activities. Research
on aging. 2013 Sep; 35 (5):612‑40.
6. Makizako H, Shimada H, Hotta R, Doi T, Tsutsumimoto K, Nakakubo S, et al. Associations of near‑miss traffic incidents with
attention and executive function among older Japanese drivers.
Gerontology 2018;64:495‑502.
7. Koppel S, Berecki‑Gisolf J. Car licensing trends of the babyboomer
cohort (b. 1946‑1965) Compared to earlier birth cohorts: Effects on
the driving population in the state of Victoria, Australia. Traffic
Inj Prev 2015;16:657‑63.
8. Dobbs BM. Aging baby boomers – A blessing or challenge for
driver licensing authorities. Traffic Inj Prev 2008;9:379‑86.
9. Biglari H, Ebrahimi MH, Salehi M, Poursadeghiyan M,
Ahmadnezhad I, Abbasi M. Relationship between occupational
stress and cardiovascular diseases risk factors in drivers. Int J
Occup Med Environ Health 2016;29:895‑901.
10. Abdoli N, Farnia V, Salemi S, Tatari F, Shakeri J, Basanj B, et al.
Predictors of substance abuse among risky drivers: The role of
personality characteristics and mental health. J Educ Health
Promot 2018;7:163.
11. Poursadeghiyan M, Mazloumi A, Saraji GN, Niknezhad A,
Akbarzadeh A, Ebrahimi MH. Determination the levels
of subjective and observer rating of drowsiness and their
associations with facial dynamic changes. Iran J Public Health
2017;46:93‑102.
12. Urlings JHJ, Cuenen A, Brijs T, Lutin M, Jongen EMM. Aiding
medical professionals in fitness‑to‑drive screenings for elderly
drivers: Development of an office‑based screening tool. Int
Psychogeriatr 2018;30:1211‑25.
13. Gentzler MD, SmitherJA. A literature review of major perceptual,
cognitive, and/or physical test batteries for older drivers. Work
2012;41 Suppl 1:5381‑3.
14. Downs SH, Black N. The feasibility of creating a checklist for the
assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and
non‑randomised studies of health care interventions. J Epidemiol
Community Health 1998;52:377‑84.
15. Banazadeh N, Khalili N, Mazhari S, Anaridokht F. Validity
and reliability of a persian version of the screen for cognitive
impairment in psychiatry scale in patients with bipolar type one
disorder. Afzalipour J Clin Res 2017;2:14‑22.
16. Tombaugh TN. Trail making test A and B: Normative data
stratified by age and education. Arch Clin Neuropsychol
2004;19:203‑14.
17. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Clinician’s Guide
to Assessing and Counseling Older Drivers. 3rd ed.ition. (Report
No. DOT HS 812 228) Washington, DC: US Department of
Transportation; 2016.
18. Staplin L, Gish KW, Sifrit KJ. Using cognitive status to predict
crash risk: Blazing new trails? J Safety Res 2014;48:19‑25.
19. Staplin L, Gish KW, Lococo KH, Joyce JJ, Sifrit KJ. The maze test:
A significant predictor of older driver crash risk. Accid Anal Prev
2013;50:483‑9.
20. Ott BR, Davis JD, Papandonatos GD, Hewitt S, Festa EK,
Heindel WC, et al. Assessment of driving‐related skills prediction
of unsafe driving in older adults in the office setting. J Am Geriatr
Soc 2013;61:1164‑9.
21. Soleymani E, Sorbi MH. The comparison between mental maze
function and bilateral nerve transmission learning (based on the
mirror drawing test) on good and poor audiovisual memory of
students. Neuropsychology 2018;3:9‑24.
22. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. “Mini‑mental state”: a
practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for
the clinician. Journal of psychiatric research. 1975;1:12 (3):189‑98.
23. Monroe T, Carter M. Using the Folstein Mini Mental State
Exam (MMSE) to explore methodological issues in cognitive aging
research. Eur J Ageing 2012;9:265‑74.
24. Seyedian M, Falah M, Norozian M, Nejat S, Delavar A,
Ghasemzadeh HA. Preparing and determining the validity of
the Persian version of the mini mental status test (Persian). Sci J
Med Syst Organ Islam Repub Iran 2007;25:408‑14.
25. Crizzle AM, Classen S, Bédard M, Lanford D, Winter S. MMSE
as a predictor of on‑road driving performance in community
dwelling older drivers. Accid Anal Prev 2012;49:287‑92.
26. Aprahamian I, Martinelli JE, Neri AL, Yassuda MS. The clock
drawing test: A review of its accuracy in screening for dementia.
Dement Neuropsychol 2009;3:74‑81.
27. Nair AK, Gavett BE, Damman M, DekkerW, GreenRC, Mandel A,
et al. Clock drawing test ratings by dementia specialists: Interrater
reliability and diagnostic accuracy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin
Neurosci 2010;22:85‑92.
28. Can SS, Gencay‑Can A, Gunendi Z. Validity and reliability of the
clock drawing test as a screening tool for cognitive impairment
in patients with fibromyalgia. Compr Psychiatry 2012;53:81‑6.
29. Sadeghipour Roodsari M, Akbari Kamrani AA, Foroughan M,
Mohammadi F, Karimloo M. Validity and reliability of the clock
drawing test in older people (Persian). Salmand Iran J Age
2013;8:48‑53.
30. Ketelaars L, Pottel L, Lycke M, Goethals L, Ghekiere V, Santy L,
et al. Use of the Freund clock drawing test within the Mini‑Cog
as a screening tool for cognitive impairment in elderly patients
with or without cancer. J Geriatric Oncol 2013;4:174‑82.
31. Spenciere B, Alves H, Charchat‑Fichman H. Scoring systems for
the clock drawing test: A historical review. Dement Neuropsychol
2017;11:6‑14.
32. Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V, Charbonneau S,
Whitehead V, Collin I, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment,
MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am
Geriatr Soc 2005;53:695‑9.
33. Yazdani S, Sharifi S, Foroughipour M, Kamyabgol A. The
visuospatial episodic memory in Persian‑speaking patients with
multiple sclerosis. J Mazandaran Univ Med Sci 2019;29:82‑95.
34. Davis DH, Creavin ST, Yip JL, Noel‑Storr AH, Brayne C, Cullum S.
Montreal Cognitive Assessment for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s
disease and other dementias. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2015;(10):CD010775.
35. Chehrehnegar N, Shams F, Zarshenas S, Kazemi F. Evaluating
the reliability of the montreal cognitive assessment test and its
agreement with mini mental state examination among healthy
elderly (Persian). J Res Rehabil Sci 2012;7:(5(SUPPLEMENT));
674‑80.
36. Ma’u E, Cheung G. Ability of the maze navigation test, Montreal
Cognitive Assessment, and trail making tests A & B to predict
on‑road driving performance in current drivers diagnosed with
dementia. N Z Med J 2020;133:23‑32.
37. Kandasamy D, Williamson K, Carr DB, Abbott D, Betz ME. The
utility of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in predicting need
for fitness to drive evaluations in older adults. J Trans Health
2019;13:19‑25.
38. Nyunt MS, Fones C, Niti M, Ng TP. Criterion‑based validity and
reliability of the Geriatric Depression Screening Scale (GDS‑15)
in a large validation sample of community‑living Asian older
adults. Aging Ment Health 2009;13:376‑82.
39. Malakouti K, Fathollahi P, Mirabzadeh A, Salavati M, Kahani S.
Validation of geriatric depression scale (GDS‑15) in Iran. Res Med
2006;30:361‑9.
40. Crizzle AM, Myers AM, Roy EA, Almeida QJ. Drivers with
Parkinson’s disease: Are the symptoms of PD associated with
restricted driving practices? J Neurol 2013;260:2562‑8.
41. Pouretemad HR, Khatibi A, Ganjavi A, Shams J, Zarei M.
Validation of Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination (ACE) in
a Persian‑speaking population. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord
2009;28:343‑7.
42. Alamdar M, Jafarzadehpur E, Mirzajani A, Yekta A. Prediction
of the refractive error based on Snellen chart and OPD‑scan III
visual acuity. J Paramed Sci Rehabil 2018;7:33‑43.
43. The police force of the Islamic republic of Iran and ministry of
health and medical education. [Executive instructions for physical and mental health (medical qualification) criteria for applicants
for various types of driving licenses (Persian)]. Tehran: Health
Regulations in Ministry of Health and Medical Education. 2009.
44. 43. Behboudi H, Moghadam RS, Tiefeh N, Karkan MF. Vision
disorders in drivers involved in traffic accidents. J Ophthalmic
Vis Res 2017;12:451‑2.
45. Unsworth CA, Baker A, Taitz C, Chan SP, Pallant JF, Russell KJ,
et al. Development of a standardised occupational therapy – Driver
Off‑Road Assessment Battery to assess older and/or functionally
impaired drivers. Aust Occup Ther J 2012;59:23‑36.
46. Chan ML, WongY, NgR, Koh GC. Medical conditions and driving
fitness of older Singaporean taxi drivers. Occup Med (Lond)
2019;69:211‑4.
47. DVLA. Guidance: Visual Disorders: Assessing Fitness to Drive,
Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency. UK: Driver and Vehicle
Licensing Agency; 2016. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/
guidance/visual-disorders-assessing-fitness-to-drive#minimumstandards-for-field-of-vision--all-drivers. [Last accessedon 2020
May 30].
48. Smith A, Marshall S, Porter M, Ha L, Bédard M, Gélinas I, et al.
Stability of physical assessment of older drivers over 1 year. Accid
Anal Prev 2013;61:261‑6.
49. Pozzi C, Lucchi E, Lanzoni A, Gentile S, Morghen S, Trabucchi M,
et al. Why older people stop to drive? A cohort study of older
patients admitted to a rehabilitation setting. Aging Clin Exp Res
2018;30:543‑6.
50. Farhadi M, Mahmoudian S, Phirozbakht M, Alaedini F, Rahimi F,
Esmaelzadah M, et al. National Guide to Infant and Child
Hearing loss Screening Program (Special instructions for experts
and officials of comprehensive health service centers (urban/
rural)) (Persian). Tehran: Ministry of Health and Medical
Education; 2018.
51. Posse C, McCarthy DP, Mann WC. A pilot study of interrater
reliability of the Assessment of Driving‑Related Skills: Older
driver screening tool. Top Geriatric Rehabil 2006;22:113‑20.
52. Woolnough A, Salim D, Marshall SC, Weegar K, Porter MM,
Rapoport MJ, et al. Determining the validity of the AMA guide:
A historical cohort analysis of the assessment of driving related
skills and crash rate among older drivers. Accid Anal Prev
2013;61:311‑6.
53. Engum ES, Cron L, Hulse CK, Pendergrass TM, Lambert W.
Cognitive behavioral driver's inventory. Cognitive rehabilitation.
1988 Sep; 6 (5):34‑50.
54. Wang C, Kosinski CJ, Schwartzberg JG, Shanklin AV,
Association AM. Physician’s guide to assessing and counseling
older drivers: American Medical Association; 2003.
55. Kantor B, Mauger L, Richardson VE, Unroe KT. An analysis of
an older driver evaluation program. Journal of the American
Geriatrics Society. 2004;52 (8):1326‑30.
56. Ball KK, Roenker DL, Wadley VG, Edwards JD, Roth DL,
McGwin Jr G, Raleigh R, Joyce JJ, Cissell GM, Dube T. Can
high‐risk older drivers be identified through performance‐based
measures in a Department of Motor Vehicles setting?. Journal of
the American Geriatrics Society. 2006 Jan; 54 (1):77‑84.
57. Langford J, Koppel S, Charlton J, Fildes B, Newstead S.
A re‑assessment of older drivers as a road safety risk. IATSS
research. 2006;30(1):27‑37.
58. Eby DW, Molnar LJ, Shope JT, Dellinger AM. Development and
pilot testing of an assessment battery for older drivers. Journal
of safety research. 2007;38(5):535‑43
59. Molnar FJ, Marshall SC, Man‑Son‑Hing M, Wilson KG,
Byszewski AM, Stiell I. Acceptability and concurrent validity of
measures to predict older driver involvement in motor vehicle
crashes: An emergency department pilot case–control study.
Accident Analysis & Prevention. 2007;39 (5):1056‑63.
60. Stav WB, Justiss MD, McCarthy DP, Mann WC, Lanford DN.
Predictability of clinical assessments for driving performance.
Journal of safety research. 2008;39 (1):1‑7.
61. WoodJM, AnsteyKJ, KerrGK, LacherezPF, LordS. Amultidomain
approach for predicting older driver safety under in‐traffic
road conditions. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.
2008;56 (6):986‑93.
62. Keay L, Munoz B, Turano KA, Hassan SE, Munro CA, Duncan DD,
et al. Visual and cognitive deficits predict stopping or restricting
driving: the Salisbury Eye Evaluation Driving Study (SEEDS).
Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2009;50 (1):107‑13.
63. Mathias J, Lucas L. Cognitive predictors of unsafe driving in
older drivers: a meta‑analysis. International psychogeriatrics.
2009;21 (4):637.
64. Barrash J, Stillman A, Anderson SW, Uc EY, Dawson JD, Rizzo M.
Prediction of driving ability with neuropsychological tests:
Demographic adjustments diminish accuracy. Journal of the
International Neuropsychological Society: JINS. 2010;16 (4):679.
65. Dobbs BM, Schopflocher D. The introduction of a new screening
tool for the identification of cognitively impaired medically at‑risk
drivers: the SIMARD a modification of the DemTect. Journal of
primary care & community health. 2010;1 (2):119‑27.
66. American Medical Association. Physician's guide to assessing
and counseling older drivers. 2 ed. Chicago: American Medical
Association; 2010.
67. Munro CA, Jefferys J, Gower EW, Muñoz BE, Lyketsos CG,
Keay L, et al. Predictors of lane‐change errors in older drivers.
Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2010;58 (3):457‑64.
68. Dawson JD, Uc EY, Anderson SW, Johnson AM, Rizzo M.
Neuropsychological predictors of driving errors in older adults.
Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2010;58 (6):1090‑6.
69. Anstey KJ, Horswill MS, Wood JM, Hatherly C. The role of
cognitive and visual abilities as predictors in the Multifactorial
Model of Driving Safety. Accident Analysis & Prevention.
2012;45:766‑74.
70. Anderson SW, Aksan N, Dawson JD, Uc EY, Johnson AM,
Rizzo M. Neuropsychological assessment of driving safety risk
in older adults with and without neurologic disease. Journal of
clinical and experimental neuropsychology. 2012;34 (9):895‑905.
71. Dickerson AE. Driving assessment tools used by driver
rehabilitation specialists: Survey of use and implications
for practice. American Journal of Occupational Therapy.
2013;67 (5):564‑73.
72. Chaudhary NK, Ledingham KA, Eby DW, Molnar LJ. Evaluating
older drivers’ skills. Preusser Research Group, Inc., 2013.
73. Bowers AR, Anastasio RJ, Sheldon SS, O’Connor MG, Hollis AM,
Howe PD, et al. Can we improve clinical prediction of at‑risk older
drivers? Accident Analysis & Prevention. 2013;59:537‑47.
74. Ferreira IS, Simões MR, Marôco J. The Addenbrooke's Cognitive
Examination Revised as a potential screening test for elderly
drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention. 2012;49:278‑86.
75. Ghasemi M, Yazdi SHH, Heravian J, Jafarzadehpur E,
Rezaee M. Comparison of visual status of Iranian military and
commercial drivers. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal.
2015;17 (4).
Available from: http://www.who.int/news‑room/fact‑sheets/
detail/ageing‑and‑health. [Last accessedon 2021 Apr 12].
2. Beard JR, Officer AM, Cassels AK. The World Report on Ageing
and Health. USA: Oxford University Press; 2016.
3. WHO. Facts on Ageing and Health.: World Health Organization;
2017. Available from: http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/
ageing/en/.[Last accessed on 2021 Apr 12]
4. WHO. Other Dimensions of the NCD Crisis: From Mental
Health, Ageing, Dementia and Malnutrition to Deaths on the
Roads, Violence and Disability. Ten Years in Public Health
2007‑2017; 2017.Available from: https://www.who.int/
publications/10‑year‑review/ncd‑other‑dimensions/en/[Last
accessed on 2021 Apr 12]
5. Marcum CS. Age differences in daily social activities. Research
on aging. 2013 Sep; 35 (5):612‑40.
6. Makizako H, Shimada H, Hotta R, Doi T, Tsutsumimoto K, Nakakubo S, et al. Associations of near‑miss traffic incidents with
attention and executive function among older Japanese drivers.
Gerontology 2018;64:495‑502.
7. Koppel S, Berecki‑Gisolf J. Car licensing trends of the babyboomer
cohort (b. 1946‑1965) Compared to earlier birth cohorts: Effects on
the driving population in the state of Victoria, Australia. Traffic
Inj Prev 2015;16:657‑63.
8. Dobbs BM. Aging baby boomers – A blessing or challenge for
driver licensing authorities. Traffic Inj Prev 2008;9:379‑86.
9. Biglari H, Ebrahimi MH, Salehi M, Poursadeghiyan M,
Ahmadnezhad I, Abbasi M. Relationship between occupational
stress and cardiovascular diseases risk factors in drivers. Int J
Occup Med Environ Health 2016;29:895‑901.
10. Abdoli N, Farnia V, Salemi S, Tatari F, Shakeri J, Basanj B, et al.
Predictors of substance abuse among risky drivers: The role of
personality characteristics and mental health. J Educ Health
Promot 2018;7:163.
11. Poursadeghiyan M, Mazloumi A, Saraji GN, Niknezhad A,
Akbarzadeh A, Ebrahimi MH. Determination the levels
of subjective and observer rating of drowsiness and their
associations with facial dynamic changes. Iran J Public Health
2017;46:93‑102.
12. Urlings JHJ, Cuenen A, Brijs T, Lutin M, Jongen EMM. Aiding
medical professionals in fitness‑to‑drive screenings for elderly
drivers: Development of an office‑based screening tool. Int
Psychogeriatr 2018;30:1211‑25.
13. Gentzler MD, SmitherJA. A literature review of major perceptual,
cognitive, and/or physical test batteries for older drivers. Work
2012;41 Suppl 1:5381‑3.
14. Downs SH, Black N. The feasibility of creating a checklist for the
assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and
non‑randomised studies of health care interventions. J Epidemiol
Community Health 1998;52:377‑84.
15. Banazadeh N, Khalili N, Mazhari S, Anaridokht F. Validity
and reliability of a persian version of the screen for cognitive
impairment in psychiatry scale in patients with bipolar type one
disorder. Afzalipour J Clin Res 2017;2:14‑22.
16. Tombaugh TN. Trail making test A and B: Normative data
stratified by age and education. Arch Clin Neuropsychol
2004;19:203‑14.
17. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Clinician’s Guide
to Assessing and Counseling Older Drivers. 3rd ed.ition. (Report
No. DOT HS 812 228) Washington, DC: US Department of
Transportation; 2016.
18. Staplin L, Gish KW, Sifrit KJ. Using cognitive status to predict
crash risk: Blazing new trails? J Safety Res 2014;48:19‑25.
19. Staplin L, Gish KW, Lococo KH, Joyce JJ, Sifrit KJ. The maze test:
A significant predictor of older driver crash risk. Accid Anal Prev
2013;50:483‑9.
20. Ott BR, Davis JD, Papandonatos GD, Hewitt S, Festa EK,
Heindel WC, et al. Assessment of driving‐related skills prediction
of unsafe driving in older adults in the office setting. J Am Geriatr
Soc 2013;61:1164‑9.
21. Soleymani E, Sorbi MH. The comparison between mental maze
function and bilateral nerve transmission learning (based on the
mirror drawing test) on good and poor audiovisual memory of
students. Neuropsychology 2018;3:9‑24.
22. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. “Mini‑mental state”: a
practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for
the clinician. Journal of psychiatric research. 1975;1:12 (3):189‑98.
23. Monroe T, Carter M. Using the Folstein Mini Mental State
Exam (MMSE) to explore methodological issues in cognitive aging
research. Eur J Ageing 2012;9:265‑74.
24. Seyedian M, Falah M, Norozian M, Nejat S, Delavar A,
Ghasemzadeh HA. Preparing and determining the validity of
the Persian version of the mini mental status test (Persian). Sci J
Med Syst Organ Islam Repub Iran 2007;25:408‑14.
25. Crizzle AM, Classen S, Bédard M, Lanford D, Winter S. MMSE
as a predictor of on‑road driving performance in community
dwelling older drivers. Accid Anal Prev 2012;49:287‑92.
26. Aprahamian I, Martinelli JE, Neri AL, Yassuda MS. The clock
drawing test: A review of its accuracy in screening for dementia.
Dement Neuropsychol 2009;3:74‑81.
27. Nair AK, Gavett BE, Damman M, DekkerW, GreenRC, Mandel A,
et al. Clock drawing test ratings by dementia specialists: Interrater
reliability and diagnostic accuracy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin
Neurosci 2010;22:85‑92.
28. Can SS, Gencay‑Can A, Gunendi Z. Validity and reliability of the
clock drawing test as a screening tool for cognitive impairment
in patients with fibromyalgia. Compr Psychiatry 2012;53:81‑6.
29. Sadeghipour Roodsari M, Akbari Kamrani AA, Foroughan M,
Mohammadi F, Karimloo M. Validity and reliability of the clock
drawing test in older people (Persian). Salmand Iran J Age
2013;8:48‑53.
30. Ketelaars L, Pottel L, Lycke M, Goethals L, Ghekiere V, Santy L,
et al. Use of the Freund clock drawing test within the Mini‑Cog
as a screening tool for cognitive impairment in elderly patients
with or without cancer. J Geriatric Oncol 2013;4:174‑82.
31. Spenciere B, Alves H, Charchat‑Fichman H. Scoring systems for
the clock drawing test: A historical review. Dement Neuropsychol
2017;11:6‑14.
32. Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V, Charbonneau S,
Whitehead V, Collin I, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment,
MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am
Geriatr Soc 2005;53:695‑9.
33. Yazdani S, Sharifi S, Foroughipour M, Kamyabgol A. The
visuospatial episodic memory in Persian‑speaking patients with
multiple sclerosis. J Mazandaran Univ Med Sci 2019;29:82‑95.
34. Davis DH, Creavin ST, Yip JL, Noel‑Storr AH, Brayne C, Cullum S.
Montreal Cognitive Assessment for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s
disease and other dementias. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2015;(10):CD010775.
35. Chehrehnegar N, Shams F, Zarshenas S, Kazemi F. Evaluating
the reliability of the montreal cognitive assessment test and its
agreement with mini mental state examination among healthy
elderly (Persian). J Res Rehabil Sci 2012;7:(5(SUPPLEMENT));
674‑80.
36. Ma’u E, Cheung G. Ability of the maze navigation test, Montreal
Cognitive Assessment, and trail making tests A & B to predict
on‑road driving performance in current drivers diagnosed with
dementia. N Z Med J 2020;133:23‑32.
37. Kandasamy D, Williamson K, Carr DB, Abbott D, Betz ME. The
utility of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in predicting need
for fitness to drive evaluations in older adults. J Trans Health
2019;13:19‑25.
38. Nyunt MS, Fones C, Niti M, Ng TP. Criterion‑based validity and
reliability of the Geriatric Depression Screening Scale (GDS‑15)
in a large validation sample of community‑living Asian older
adults. Aging Ment Health 2009;13:376‑82.
39. Malakouti K, Fathollahi P, Mirabzadeh A, Salavati M, Kahani S.
Validation of geriatric depression scale (GDS‑15) in Iran. Res Med
2006;30:361‑9.
40. Crizzle AM, Myers AM, Roy EA, Almeida QJ. Drivers with
Parkinson’s disease: Are the symptoms of PD associated with
restricted driving practices? J Neurol 2013;260:2562‑8.
41. Pouretemad HR, Khatibi A, Ganjavi A, Shams J, Zarei M.
Validation of Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination (ACE) in
a Persian‑speaking population. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord
2009;28:343‑7.
42. Alamdar M, Jafarzadehpur E, Mirzajani A, Yekta A. Prediction
of the refractive error based on Snellen chart and OPD‑scan III
visual acuity. J Paramed Sci Rehabil 2018;7:33‑43.
43. The police force of the Islamic republic of Iran and ministry of
health and medical education. [Executive instructions for physical and mental health (medical qualification) criteria for applicants
for various types of driving licenses (Persian)]. Tehran: Health
Regulations in Ministry of Health and Medical Education. 2009.
44. 43. Behboudi H, Moghadam RS, Tiefeh N, Karkan MF. Vision
disorders in drivers involved in traffic accidents. J Ophthalmic
Vis Res 2017;12:451‑2.
45. Unsworth CA, Baker A, Taitz C, Chan SP, Pallant JF, Russell KJ,
et al. Development of a standardised occupational therapy – Driver
Off‑Road Assessment Battery to assess older and/or functionally
impaired drivers. Aust Occup Ther J 2012;59:23‑36.
46. Chan ML, WongY, NgR, Koh GC. Medical conditions and driving
fitness of older Singaporean taxi drivers. Occup Med (Lond)
2019;69:211‑4.
47. DVLA. Guidance: Visual Disorders: Assessing Fitness to Drive,
Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency. UK: Driver and Vehicle
Licensing Agency; 2016. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/
guidance/visual-disorders-assessing-fitness-to-drive#minimumstandards-for-field-of-vision--all-drivers. [Last accessedon 2020
May 30].
48. Smith A, Marshall S, Porter M, Ha L, Bédard M, Gélinas I, et al.
Stability of physical assessment of older drivers over 1 year. Accid
Anal Prev 2013;61:261‑6.
49. Pozzi C, Lucchi E, Lanzoni A, Gentile S, Morghen S, Trabucchi M,
et al. Why older people stop to drive? A cohort study of older
patients admitted to a rehabilitation setting. Aging Clin Exp Res
2018;30:543‑6.
50. Farhadi M, Mahmoudian S, Phirozbakht M, Alaedini F, Rahimi F,
Esmaelzadah M, et al. National Guide to Infant and Child
Hearing loss Screening Program (Special instructions for experts
and officials of comprehensive health service centers (urban/
rural)) (Persian). Tehran: Ministry of Health and Medical
Education; 2018.
51. Posse C, McCarthy DP, Mann WC. A pilot study of interrater
reliability of the Assessment of Driving‑Related Skills: Older
driver screening tool. Top Geriatric Rehabil 2006;22:113‑20.
52. Woolnough A, Salim D, Marshall SC, Weegar K, Porter MM,
Rapoport MJ, et al. Determining the validity of the AMA guide:
A historical cohort analysis of the assessment of driving related
skills and crash rate among older drivers. Accid Anal Prev
2013;61:311‑6.
53. Engum ES, Cron L, Hulse CK, Pendergrass TM, Lambert W.
Cognitive behavioral driver's inventory. Cognitive rehabilitation.
1988 Sep; 6 (5):34‑50.
54. Wang C, Kosinski CJ, Schwartzberg JG, Shanklin AV,
Association AM. Physician’s guide to assessing and counseling
older drivers: American Medical Association; 2003.
55. Kantor B, Mauger L, Richardson VE, Unroe KT. An analysis of
an older driver evaluation program. Journal of the American
Geriatrics Society. 2004;52 (8):1326‑30.
56. Ball KK, Roenker DL, Wadley VG, Edwards JD, Roth DL,
McGwin Jr G, Raleigh R, Joyce JJ, Cissell GM, Dube T. Can
high‐risk older drivers be identified through performance‐based
measures in a Department of Motor Vehicles setting?. Journal of
the American Geriatrics Society. 2006 Jan; 54 (1):77‑84.
57. Langford J, Koppel S, Charlton J, Fildes B, Newstead S.
A re‑assessment of older drivers as a road safety risk. IATSS
research. 2006;30(1):27‑37.
58. Eby DW, Molnar LJ, Shope JT, Dellinger AM. Development and
pilot testing of an assessment battery for older drivers. Journal
of safety research. 2007;38(5):535‑43
59. Molnar FJ, Marshall SC, Man‑Son‑Hing M, Wilson KG,
Byszewski AM, Stiell I. Acceptability and concurrent validity of
measures to predict older driver involvement in motor vehicle
crashes: An emergency department pilot case–control study.
Accident Analysis & Prevention. 2007;39 (5):1056‑63.
60. Stav WB, Justiss MD, McCarthy DP, Mann WC, Lanford DN.
Predictability of clinical assessments for driving performance.
Journal of safety research. 2008;39 (1):1‑7.
61. WoodJM, AnsteyKJ, KerrGK, LacherezPF, LordS. Amultidomain
approach for predicting older driver safety under in‐traffic
road conditions. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.
2008;56 (6):986‑93.
62. Keay L, Munoz B, Turano KA, Hassan SE, Munro CA, Duncan DD,
et al. Visual and cognitive deficits predict stopping or restricting
driving: the Salisbury Eye Evaluation Driving Study (SEEDS).
Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2009;50 (1):107‑13.
63. Mathias J, Lucas L. Cognitive predictors of unsafe driving in
older drivers: a meta‑analysis. International psychogeriatrics.
2009;21 (4):637.
64. Barrash J, Stillman A, Anderson SW, Uc EY, Dawson JD, Rizzo M.
Prediction of driving ability with neuropsychological tests:
Demographic adjustments diminish accuracy. Journal of the
International Neuropsychological Society: JINS. 2010;16 (4):679.
65. Dobbs BM, Schopflocher D. The introduction of a new screening
tool for the identification of cognitively impaired medically at‑risk
drivers: the SIMARD a modification of the DemTect. Journal of
primary care & community health. 2010;1 (2):119‑27.
66. American Medical Association. Physician's guide to assessing
and counseling older drivers. 2 ed. Chicago: American Medical
Association; 2010.
67. Munro CA, Jefferys J, Gower EW, Muñoz BE, Lyketsos CG,
Keay L, et al. Predictors of lane‐change errors in older drivers.
Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2010;58 (3):457‑64.
68. Dawson JD, Uc EY, Anderson SW, Johnson AM, Rizzo M.
Neuropsychological predictors of driving errors in older adults.
Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2010;58 (6):1090‑6.
69. Anstey KJ, Horswill MS, Wood JM, Hatherly C. The role of
cognitive and visual abilities as predictors in the Multifactorial
Model of Driving Safety. Accident Analysis & Prevention.
2012;45:766‑74.
70. Anderson SW, Aksan N, Dawson JD, Uc EY, Johnson AM,
Rizzo M. Neuropsychological assessment of driving safety risk
in older adults with and without neurologic disease. Journal of
clinical and experimental neuropsychology. 2012;34 (9):895‑905.
71. Dickerson AE. Driving assessment tools used by driver
rehabilitation specialists: Survey of use and implications
for practice. American Journal of Occupational Therapy.
2013;67 (5):564‑73.
72. Chaudhary NK, Ledingham KA, Eby DW, Molnar LJ. Evaluating
older drivers’ skills. Preusser Research Group, Inc., 2013.
73. Bowers AR, Anastasio RJ, Sheldon SS, O’Connor MG, Hollis AM,
Howe PD, et al. Can we improve clinical prediction of at‑risk older
drivers? Accident Analysis & Prevention. 2013;59:537‑47.
74. Ferreira IS, Simões MR, Marôco J. The Addenbrooke's Cognitive
Examination Revised as a potential screening test for elderly
drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention. 2012;49:278‑86.
75. Ghasemi M, Yazdi SHH, Heravian J, Jafarzadehpur E,
Rezaee M. Comparison of visual status of Iranian military and
commercial drivers. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal.
2015;17 (4).
)